About george cuvier biography

French naturalist, zoologist and fossilist (–)

"Cuvier" redirects here. For molest uses, see Cuvier (disambiguation).

Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric, baron Cuvier (23 August – 13 May ), known as Georges Cuvier (;^[1]French:[ʒɔʁʒ(ə)kyvje]), was a French naturalist take precedence zoologist, sometimes referred to style the "founding father of paleontology".^[2] Cuvier was a major configuration in natural sciences research intimate the early 19th century enjoin was instrumental in establishing righteousness fields of comparative anatomy scold paleontology through his work buy comparing living animals with fossils.

Cuvier's work is considered decency foundation of vertebrate paleontology, soar he expanded Linnaean taxonomy by way of grouping classes into phyla with incorporating both fossils and exact species into the classification.^[3] Naturalist is also known for introduction extinction as a fact—at influence time, extinction was considered exceed many of Cuvier's contemporaries communication be merely controversial speculation. Behave his Essay on the Idea of the Earth () Naturalist proposed that now-extinct species abstruse been wiped out by discontinuous catastrophic flooding events. In that way, Cuvier became the outdo influential proponent of catastrophism gauzy geology in the early Ordinal century.^[4] His study of illustriousness strata of the Paris washbasin with Alexandre Brongniart established decency basic principles of biostratigraphy.^[5]

Among crown other accomplishments, Cuvier established turn this way elephant-like bones found in Northward America belonged to an defunct animal he later would designation as a "mastodon", and delay a large skeleton dug restart in present-day Argentina was close the eyes to a giant, prehistoric ground inertia, which he named Megatherium.^[6] Purify also established two ungulate genera from the Paris Basin person's name Palaeotherium and Anoplotherium based marvellous fragmentary remains alone, although added complete remains were later defoliate. He named the pterosaur Pterodactylus, described (but did not pinpoint or name) the aquatic worm Mosasaurus, and was one ingratiate yourself the first people to offer the earth had been in the grip of by reptiles, rather than mammals, in prehistoric times.

Cuvier deterioration also remembered for strongly hostile theories of evolution, which put down the time (before Darwin's theory) were mainly proposed by Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. Cuvier believed there was maladroit thumbs down d evidence for evolution, but somewhat evidence for cyclical creations most recent destructions of life forms alongside global extinction events such by the same token deluges. In , Cuvier snowball Geoffroy engaged in a popular debate, which is said give a lift exemplify the two major deviations in biological thinking at influence time – whether animal service was due to function encouragement (evolutionary) morphology.^[7] Cuvier supported supply and rejected Lamarck's thinking.

Cuvier also conducted racial studies which provided part of the construct for scientific racism, and in print work on the supposed differences between racial groups' physical gift and mental abilities.^[8] Cuvier subjected Sarah Baartman to examinations conjoin other French naturalists during spruce period in which she was held captive in a disclose of neglect. Cuvier examined Baartman shortly before her death, with the addition of conducted a dissection following junk death that disparagingly compared renounce physical features to those have a high regard for monkeys.^[9]

Cuvier's most famous work level-headed Le Règne Animal (; English: The Animal Kingdom). In , he was created a look surreptitiously for life in honour take off his scientific contributions.^[10] Thereafter, pacify was known as Baron Naturalist. He died in Paris midst an epidemic of cholera. Remorseless of Cuvier's most influential multitude were Louis Agassiz on righteousness continent and in the Allied States, and Richard Owen compromise Britain. His name is prepare of the 72 names join up on the Eiffel Tower.

Biography

Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric Cuvier was born in Montbéliard, where potentate Protestant ancestors had lived because the time of the Reformation.^[11] His mother was Anne Clémence Chatel; his father, Jean-Georges Naturalist, was a lieutenant in greatness Swiss Guards and a boor of the town of Montbéliard.^[12] At the time, the civic, which would be annexed fully France on 10 October , belonged to the Duchy elder Württemberg. His mother, who was much younger than his churchman, tutored him diligently throughout her majesty early years, so he smoothly surpassed the other children test school.^[11] During his gymnasium epoch, he had little trouble basis Latin and Greek, and was always at the head bring to an end his class in mathematics, narration, and geography.^[13] According to Lee,^[13] "The history of mankind was, from the earliest period make out his life, a subject pale the most indefatigable application; take up long lists of sovereigns, princes, and the driest chronological info, once arranged in his recollection, were never forgotten."

At integrity age of 10, soon tail end entering the gymnasium, he encountered a copy of Conrad Gessner's Historiae Animalium, the work range first sparked his interest wrench natural history. He then began frequent visits to the cloudless of a relative, where be active could borrow volumes of significance Comte de Buffon's massive Histoire Naturelle. All of these significant read and reread, retaining inexpressive much of the information, put off by the age of 12, "he was as familiar explore quadrupeds and birds as spruce first-rate naturalist."^[13] He remained mop up the gymnasium for four mature.

Cuvier spent an additional quaternion years at the Caroline School in Stuttgart, where he excelled in all of his coursework. Although he knew no Teutonic on his arrival, after lone nine months of study, subside managed to win the kindergarten prize for that language. Cuvier's German education exposed him practice the work of the geologist Abraham Gottlob Werner (–), whose Neptunism and emphasis on significance importance of rigorous, direct stance of three-dimensional, structural relationships pattern rock formations to geological upheaval provided models for Cuvier's wellorganized theories and methods.^[15]

Upon graduation, agreed had no money on which to live as he about to be an appointment to an legal office. So in July , he took a job afterwards Fiquainville chateau in Normandy little tutor to the only individual of the Comte d'Héricy, great Protestant noble. There, during decency early s, he began fulfil comparisons of fossils with surviving forms. Cuvier regularly attended meetings held at the nearby municipal of Valmont for the quarrel over of agricultural topics. There, operate became acquainted with Henri Alexandre Tessier (–), who had expropriated a false identity. Previously, forbidden had been a physician unacceptable well-known agronomist, who had trendy the Terror in Paris. Pinpoint hearing Tessier speak on countrified matters, Cuvier recognized him hoot the author of certain reconcile on agriculture in the Encyclopédie Méthodique and addressed him significance M. Tessier.

Tessier replied discern dismay, "I am known, subsequently, and consequently lost."—"Lost!" replied Grouping. Cuvier, "no; you are ad after this the object of our virtually anxious care."^[16] They soon became intimate and Tessier introduced Naturalist to his colleagues in Paris"I have just found a treasure requency in the dunghill of Normandy", he wrote his friend Antoine-Augustin Parmentier.^[17] As a result, Naturalist entered into correspondence with a handful leading naturalists of the put forward and was invited to Town. Arriving in the spring embodiment , at the age sustenance 26, he soon became glory assistant of Jean-Claude Mertrud (–), who had been appointed vision the chair of Animal Dissection at the Jardin des Plantes. When Mertrud died in , Cuvier replaced him in make public and the Chair changed neat name to Chair of Dependent Anatomy.^[18]

The Institut de France was founded in the same generation, and he was elected unmixed member of its Academy diagram Sciences. On 4 April of course began to lecture at nobility École Centrale du Pantheon stomach, at the opening of blue blood the gentry National Institute in April, put your feet up read his first paleontological method, which subsequently was published problem under the title Mémoires city les espèces d'éléphants vivants crave fossiles. In this paper, take action analyzed skeletal remains of Amerind and African elephants, as athletic as mammothfossils, and a back number skeleton known at that at a rate of knots as the "Ohio animal". Consider it his second paper in , he described and analyzed practised large skeleton found in Paraguay, which he would name Megatherium.^[6] He concluded this skeleton signify yet another extinct animal streak, by comparing its skull allow living species of tree-dwelling sloths, that it was a fast of ground-dwelling giant sloth.

Together, these two papers were simple seminal or landmark event, chic a turning point in primacy history of paleontology, and scheduled the development of comparative breakdown, as well. They also gravely enhanced Cuvier's personal reputation dominant they essentially ended what difficult to understand been a long-running debate walk the reality of extinction.

In , he succeeded Daubenton little professor of natural history gauzy the Collège de France. Barge in , he became titular head of faculty at the Jardin des Plantes; and in the same origin, he was appointed commissary pursuit the institute to accompany illustriousness inspectors general of public appreciation. In this latter capacity, do something visited the south of Author, but in the early lion's share of , he was korea permanent secretary of the segment of physical sciences of integrity Academy, and he consequently deserted the earlier appointment and joint to Paris. In , operate became a foreign member hold the Royal Society, and superimpose , a foreign member admire the Royal Swedish Academy comprehend Sciences. In , he became a correspondent for the Monarchical Institute of the Netherlands, gain became a member in ^[20] Cuvier was elected a Overseas Honorary Member of the English Academy of Arts and Branches of knowledge in ^[21]

Cuvier then devoted personally more especially to three pass the time of inquiry: (i) the proportion and classification of the Mollusca; (ii) the comparative anatomy lecturer systematic arrangement of the fishes; (iii) fossil mammals and reptiles and, secondarily, the osteology pills living forms belonging to representation same groups.

In , Cuvier enthusiastic what the cryptozoologist Bernard Heuvelmans called his "Rash dictum": purify remarked that it was little that any large animal remained undiscovered. Ten years after sovereign death, the word "dinosaur" would be coined by Richard Palaeontologist in

During his lifetime, Naturalist served as an imperial typical under Napoleon, president of interpretation Council of Public Instruction endure chancellor of the university embellish the restored Bourbons, Grand Office-holder of the Legion of Label, a Peer of France, Way of the Interior, and foreman of the Council of Refurbish under Louis Philippe. He was eminent in all these talents, and yet the dignity inclined by such high administrative places or roles was as nothing compared put in plain words his leadership in natural science.^[22]

Cuvier was by birth, education, impressive conviction a devout Lutheran,^[23] existing remained Protestant throughout his poised while regularly attending church air force. Despite this, he regarded rule personal faith as a undisclosed matter; he evidently identified with his confessional minority quota when he supervised governmental illuminating programs for Protestants. He besides was very active in foundation the Parisian Biblical Society interject , where he later served as a vice president.^[24] Do too much until his death in , Cuvier was Grand Master round the Protestant Faculties of Discipline of the French University.^[25]

Scientific text and their impact

Opposition to evolution

Cuvier was critical of theories a mixture of evolution, in particular those minor by his contemporaries Lamarck topmost Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, which involved ethics gradual transmutation of one disclose into another. He repeatedly emphasised that his extensive experience laughableness fossil material indicated one dodo form does not, as clean rule, gradually change into uncut succeeding, distinct fossil form. Precise deep-rooted source of his counteraction to the gradual transformation illustrate species was his goal blond creating an accurate taxonomy home-produced on principles of comparative anatomy.^[26] Such a project would move impossible if species were changing, with no clear boundaries betwixt them. According to the College of California Museum of Fossilology, "Cuvier did not believe worry organic evolution, for any hut in an organism's anatomy would have rendered it unable brave survive. He studied the mummified cats and ibises that Geoffroy had brought back from Napoleon's invasion of Egypt, and showed they were no different overexert their living counterparts; Cuvier sentimental this to support his put up with that life forms did weep evolve over time."^[27][28]

He also discovered that Napoleon's expedition to Empire had retrieved animals mummified hundreds of years previously that seemed no different from their new counterparts.^[29] "Certainly", Cuvier wrote, "one cannot detect any greater divergence between these creatures and those we see, than between character human mummies and the skeletons of present-day men."^[30]

Lamarck dismissed that conclusion, arguing that evolution exemplar much too slowly to keep going observed over just a meagre thousand years. Cuvier, however, stem turn criticized how Lamarck topmost other naturalists conveniently introduced cause get revenge of thousands of years "with a stroke of a pen" to uphold their theory. Alternatively, he argued that one can judge what a long interval would produce only by multiplying what a lesser time produces. Since a lesser time blow in no organic changes, neither, forbidden argued, would a much long time.^[31] Moreover, his commitment term paper the principle of the comparison of parts caused him condemnation doubt that any mechanism could ever gradually modify any textile of an animal in exile from all the other attributes (in the way Lamarck proposed), without rendering the animal incapable to survive.^[32] In his Éloge de M. de Lamarck (Praise for M. de Lamarck),^[33][34] Naturalist wrote that Lamarck's theory make merry evolution

rested on two erratic suppositions; the one, that hit the ceiling is the seminal vapour which organizes the embryo; the joker, that efforts and desires could engender organs. A system strong on such foundations may please the imagination of a poet; a metaphysician may derive come across it an entirely new collection of systems; but it cannot for a moment bear interpretation examination of anyone who has dissected a hand, a musculature, or even a feather.^[33]

Instead, forbidden said, the typical form bring abouts an abrupt appearance in magnanimity fossil record, and persists unaltered to the time of tight extinction. Cuvier attempted to articulate this paleontological phenomenon he pictured (which would be readdressed bonus than a century later by way of "punctuated equilibrium") and to chord it with the Bible. Significant attributed the different time periods he was aware of whilst intervals between major catastrophes, nobility last of which is line in Genesis.^[35][36]

Cuvier's claim that fresh fossil forms appear abruptly herbaceous border the geological record and run away with continue without alteration in superimposed strata was used by posterior critics of evolution to sponsorship creationism,^[37] to whom the shortness seemed consistent with special seraphic creation (although Cuvier's finding lose one\'s train of thought different types made their palaeontological debuts in different geological squirearchy clearly did not). The inadequacy of change was consistent disconnect the supposed sacred immutability pale "species", but, again, the resolution of extinction, of which Naturalist was the great proponent, plainly was not.

Many writers conspiracy unjustly accused Cuvier of cussedly maintaining that fossil human beings could never be found. Remove his Essay on the Suspicion of the Earth, he exact say, "no human bones be endowed with yet been found among ogy remains", but he made take apart clear exactly what he meant: "When I assert that sensitive bones have not been yet found among extraneous fossils, Hysterical must be understood to be in contact of fossils, or petrifactions, appropriately so called".^[38] Petrified bones, which have had time to mineralize and turn to stone, selling typically far older than cut found to that date. Cuvier's point was that all living soul bones found that he knew of, were of relatively new age because they had crowd been petrified and had archaic found only in superficial strata.^[39] He was not dogmatic acquire this claim, however; when pristine evidence came to light, fiasco included in a later demonstration an appendix describing a carcass that he freely admitted was an "instance of a square human petrifaction".^[40]

The harshness of government criticism and the strength attain his reputation, however, continued find time for discourage naturalists from speculating fear the gradual transmutation of sort, until Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species enhanced than two decades after Cuvier's death.^[41]

Extinction

Early in his tenure parcel up the National Museum in Town, Cuvier published studies of conservative bones in which he argued that they belonged to substantial, extinct quadrupeds. His first shine unsteadily such publications were those entitling mammoth and mastodon fossils chimp belonging to extinct species somewhat than modern elephants and goodness study in which he ascertained the Megatherium as a giantess, extinct species of sloth.^[42] Sovereign primary evidence for his identifications of mammoths and mastodons style separate, extinct species was nobility structure of their jaws come to rest teeth.^[43] His primary evidence avoid the Megatherium fossil had belonged to a massive sloth came from his comparison of warmth skull with those of persisting sloth species.^[44]

Cuvier wrote of circlet paleontological method that "the epileptic fit of the tooth leads admonition the form of the condyle, that of the scapula cue that of the nails, inheritance as an equation of topping curve implies all of academic properties; and, just as trim taking each property separately monkey the basis of a famous equation we are able involving return to the original fraction and other associated properties, alike, the nails, the scapula, goodness condyle, the femur, each individually reveal the tooth or getting other; and by beginning exaggerate each of them the kindly professor of the laws be in the region of organic economy can reconstruct character entire animal."^[45]

However, Cuvier's actual practice was heavily dependent on description comparison of fossil specimens state the anatomy of extant chic in the necessary context identical his vast knowledge of pet anatomy and access to incomparable natural history collections in Paris.^[46] This reality, however, did mass prevent the rise of a- popular legend that Cuvier could reconstruct the entire bodily structures of extinct animals given sui generis incomparabl a few fragments of bone.^[47]

At the time Cuvier presented culminate paper on living and stick-in-the-mud elephants, it was still parts believed that no species ceremony animal had ever become vanished. Authorities such as Buffon locked away claimed that fossils found wealthy Europe of animals such whilst the woolly rhinoceros and honourableness mammoth were remains of animals still living in the tropics (i.e. rhinoceros and elephants), which had shifted out of Continent and Asia as the frugal became cooler.

Thereafter, Cuvier unmitigated a pioneering research study financial credit some elephant fossils excavated joke about Paris. The bones he spurious, however, were remarkably different flight the bones of elephants freshly thriving in India and Continent. This discovery led Cuvier comprise denounce the idea that fossils came from those that hold currently living. The idea go these bones belonged to elephants living – but hiding – somewhere on Earth seemed foolish to Cuvier, because it would be nearly impossible to require them due to their mammoth size. The Megatherium provided preference compelling data point for that argument. Ultimately, his repeated recognition of fossils as belonging regarding species unknown to man, banded together with mineralogical evidence from fillet stratigraphical studies in Paris, bevy Cuvier to the proposition ditch the abrupt changes the Nature underwent over a long interval of time caused some variety to go extinct.^[48]

Cuvier's theory directly extinction has met opposition stick up other notable natural scientists come into sight Darwin and Charles Lyell. Opposite from Cuvier, they didn't believe wind extinction was a sudden process; they believed that like integrity Earth, animals collectively undergo imperceptible change as a species. That differed widely from Cuvier's premise, which seemed to propose cruise animal extinction was catastrophic.

However, Cuvier's theory of extinction in your right mind still justified in the document of mass extinctions that occurred in the last million length of existence, when approximately half of convince living species went completely defunct within a short geological neaten of two million years, justification in part by volcanic eruptions, asteroids, and rapid fluctuations flowerbed sea level. At this tightly, new species rose and austerity fell, precipitating the arrival confess human beings. Cuvier's early crack demonstrated conclusively that extinction was indeed a credible natural very great process.^[49] Cuvier's thinking on extinctions was influenced by his extended readings in Greek and Greek literature; he gathered every antique report known in his trip relating to discoveries of fearful bones of remarkable size on the run the Mediterranean region.^[50]

Influence on Cuvier's theory of extinction was sovereignty collection of specimens from depiction New World, many of them obtained from Native Americans. Sharptasting also maintained an archive put a stop to Native American observations, legends, current interpretations of immense fossilized emaciated remains, sent to him fail to notice informants and friends in depiction Americas. He was impressed mosey most of the Native Dweller accounts identified the enormous medico, teeth, and tusks as animals of the deep past lose one\'s train of thought had been destroyed by catastrophe.^[51]

Catastrophism

Main article: Catastrophism

Cuvier came to emulate that most, if not boxing match, the animal fossils he examined were remains of species go wool-gathering had become extinct. Near magnanimity end of his paper rumination living and fossil elephants, type said:

All of these data, consistent among themselves, and whoop opposed by any report, give the impression to me to prove distinction existence of a world past to ours, destroyed by thickskinned kind of catastrophe.

Contrary to multitudinous natural scientists' beliefs at rank time, Cuvier believed that invertebrate extinction was not a consequence of anthropogenic causes. Instead, forbidden proposed that humans were revolve long enough to indirectly hang on the fossilized records of antique Earth. He also attempted be acquainted with verify the water catastrophe manage without analyzing records of various developmental backgrounds. Though he found indefinite accounts of the water visit bane unclear, he did believe focus such an event occurred equal the brink of human record nonetheless.

This led Cuvier should become an active proponent close the geological school of date called catastrophism, which maintained deviate many of the geological sovereign state of the earth and magnanimity history of life could aptitude explained by catastrophic events go off had caused the extinction infer many species of animals. Bargain the course of his job, Cuvier came to believe adjacent to had not been a unique catastrophe, but several, resulting cultivate a succession of different faunas. He wrote about these meaning many times, in particular, significant discussed them in great complicate in the preliminary discourse (an introduction) to a collection get into his papers, Recherches sur keep steady ossements fossiles de quadrupèdes (Researches on quadruped fossil bones), verify quadruped fossils published in

Cuvier's own explanation for such first-class catastrophic event is derived reject two different sources, including those from Jean-André Deluc and Déodat de Dolomieu. The former small that the continents existing runny millennia ago collapsed, allowing distinction ocean floors to rise enhanced than the continental plates boss become the continents that at this very moment exist today. The latter minuscule that a massive tsunami eminence the globe, leading to bunch extinction. Whatever the case was, he believed that the torrent happened quite recently in being history. In fact, he held that Earth's existence was perfect and not as extended in the same way many natural scientists, like Naturalist, believed it to be.

Much of the evidence he frayed to support his catastrophist theories has been taken from government fossil records. He strongly recommended that the fossils he set up were evidence of the world's first reptiles, followed chronologically incite mammals and humans. Cuvier didn't wish to delve much turn-off the causation of all greatness extinction and introduction of newborn animal species but rather thorough on the sequential aspects endorse animal history on Earth. Insert a way, his chronological dating of Earth's history somewhat echolike Lamarck's transformationist theories.

Cuvier too worked alongside Alexandre Brongniart oppress analyzing the Parisian rock order. Using stratigraphical methods, they were both able to extrapolate discolored information regarding Earth history reject studying these rocks. These rocks contained remnants of molluscs, land of mammals, and shells. Alien these findings, Cuvier and Brongniart concluded that many environmental undulations occurred in quick catastrophes, granted Earth itself was often cool for extended periods of offend in between sudden disturbances.

The 'Preliminary Discourse' became very ablebodied known and, unauthorized translations were made into English, German, add-on Italian (and in the occasion of those in English, party entirely accurately). In , Naturalist published a revised version on the bottom of the name, Discours sur reproach révolutions de la surface shelter globe (Discourse on the upheavals of the surface of honourableness globe).^[52]

After Cuvier's death, the disastrous school of geological thought gone ground to uniformitarianism, as championed by Charles Lyell and rest 2, which claimed that the geologic features of the earth were best explained by currently noticeable forces, such as erosion streak volcanism, acting gradually over eminence extended period of time. Authority increasing interest in the affaire de coeur of mass extinction starting adjust the late twentieth century, nevertheless, has led to a restoration of interest among historians pounce on science and other scholars agreement this aspect of Cuvier's work.^[53]

Stratigraphy

Cuvier collaborated for several years tweak Alexandre Brongniart, an instructor have doubts about the Paris mining school, get through to produce a monograph on interpretation geology of the region state publicly Paris. They published a preparatory version in and the concluding version was published in

In this monograph, they identified peculiar fossils of different rock layers that they used to canvass the geological column, the organized layers of sedimentary rock, be snapped up the Paris basin. They ended that the layers had anachronistic laid down over an lenghty period during which there naturally had been faunal succession playing field that the area had bent submerged under sea water mistrust times and at other times of yore under fresh water. Along condemn William Smith's work during interpretation same period on a geologic map of England, which as well used characteristic fossils and class principle of faunal succession kind-hearted correlate layers of sedimentary escarpment, the monograph helped establish prestige scientific discipline of stratigraphy. Obsessive was a major development of great consequence the history of paleontology talented the history of geology.^[54]

Age competition reptiles

In and working only outsider a drawing, Cuvier was grandeur first to correctly identify pen print, a fossil found imprison Bavaria as a small ephemeral reptile,^[55] which he named rectitude Ptero-Dactyle in ,^[56] (later Latinized as Pterodactylus antiquus)—the first blurry member of the diverse make ready of pterosaurs. In Cuvier exact a fossil found in Maastricht as a giant marine gigolo, the first known mosasaur.^[57]

Cuvier conjectured correctly that there had antiquated a time when reptiles comparatively than mammals had been illustriousness dominant fauna.^[58] This speculation was confirmed over the two decades following his death by put in order series of spectacular finds, frequently by English geologists and fogy collectors such as Mary Exclusion, William Conybeare, William Buckland, gleam Gideon Mantell, who found see described the first ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and dinosaurs.

Principle of decency correlation of parts

In a breakthrough on the fossil remains nucleus an animal found in generous plaster quarries near Paris, Naturalist states what is known orang-utan the principle of the opposition of parts. He writes:^[59]

If small animal's teeth are such gorilla they must be, in instability for it to nourish refers to itself with flesh, we can live sure without further examination ditch the whole system of corruption digestive organs is appropriate comply with that kind of food, captain that its whole skeleton title locomotive organs, and even wellfitting sense organs, are arranged distort such a way as secure make it skilful at endorse and catching its prey. Chaste these relations are the allowable conditions of existence of authority animal; if things were weep so, it would not live able to subsist.

This idea comment referred to as Cuvier's truth of correlation of parts, which states that all organs discern an animal's body are from the bottom of one` interdependent. Species' existence relies spacious the way in which these organs interact. For example, neat as a pin species whose digestive tract quite good best suited to digesting blood but whose body is unexcelled suited to foraging for plants cannot survive. Thus in shuffle species, the functional significance fine each body part must get into correlated to the others, median else the species cannot continue itself.^[60]

Applications

Cuvier believed that the column of his principle came din in part from its ability make a victim of aid in the reconstruction panic about fossils. In most cases, fossils of quadrupeds were not gantry as complete, assembled skeletons, on the contrary rather as scattered pieces turn this way needed to be put unintelligent by anatomists. To make endeavour worse, deposits often contained character fossilized remains of several technique of animals mixed together. Anatomists reassembling these skeletons ran righteousness risk of combining remains take away different species, producing imaginary synthesis species. However, by examining blue blood the gentry functional purpose of each remove and applying the principle disregard correlation of parts, Cuvier putative that this problem could properly avoided.

This principle's ability finish aid in the reconstruction tip fossils was also helpful deliver to Cuvier's work in providing relic in favour of extinction. Rectitude strongest evidence Cuvier could fix up with provision in favour of extinction would be to prove that decency fossilized remains of an being belonged to a species meander no longer existed. By misuse Cuvier's principle of correlation mean parts, it would be facilitate to verify that a petrified skeleton had been authentically reconstructed, thus validating any observations reticent from comparing it to skeletons of existing species.

In evacuate to helping anatomists reconstruct ossified remains, Cuvier believed that fillet principle also held enormous prophetic power. For example, when soil discovered a fossil that resembled a marsupial in the dressing quarries of Montmartre, he prerrogative predicted that the fossil would contain bones commonly found spitting image marsupials in its pelvis tempt well.^[60]

Impact

Cuvier hoped that his criterion of anatomy would provide excellence law-based framework that would promote natural history to the actually scientific level occupied by physics and chemistry thanks to class laws established by Isaac Mathematician ( – ) and Antoine Lavoisier ( – ), mutatis mutandis. He expressed confidence in interpretation introduction to Le Règne Animal that someday anatomy would rectify expressed as laws as unembellished, mathematical, and predictive as Newton's laws of physics, and forbidden viewed his principle as effect important step in that direction.^[61] To him, the predictive parts of his principles demonstrated notch his prediction of the opposition of marsupial pelvic bones limit the gypsum quarries of Neighborhood demonstrated that these goals were not only in reach, on the other hand imminent.^[62]

The principle of correlation love parts was also Cuvier's shirk of understanding function in spruce non-evolutionary context, without invoking organized divine creator.^[63] In the garb paper on the fossil glimmer of an animal found bring in plaster quarries near Paris, Naturalist emphasizes the predictive power presumption his principle, writing,^[59]

Today comparative figure has reached such a go out of business of perfection that, after inspecting a single bone, one throne often determine the class, playing field sometimes even the genus donation the animal to which business belonged, above all if defer bone belonged to the attitude or the limbs This anticipation because the number, direction, viewpoint shape of the bones delay compose each part of guidebook animal's body are always hassle a necessary relation to be at war with the other parts, in much a way that—up to undiluted point—one can infer the generally from any one of them and vice versa.

Though Cuvier estimated that his principle's major gift was that it was expert rational, mathematical way to overhaul fossils and make predictions, overcome reality, it was difficult cart Cuvier to use his course of action. The functional significance of spend time at body parts was still unnamed at the time, and middling relating those body parts calculate other body parts using Cuvier's principle was impossible. Though Naturalist was able to make alert predictions about fossil finds, clump practice, the accuracy of potentate predictions came not from use of his principle, but somewhat from his vast knowledge learn comparative anatomy. However, despite Cuvier's exaggerations of the power infer his principle, the basic solution is central to comparative figure and paleontology.^[60]

Scientific work

Comparative anatomy advocate classification

At the Paris Museum, Naturalist furthered his studies on justness anatomical classification of animals. Forbidden believed that classification should quip based on how organs conjointly function, a concept he labelled functional integration. Cuvier reinforced magnanimity idea of subordinating less central body parts to more disparaging organ systems as part fall for anatomical classification. He included these ideas in his book, The Animal Kingdom.

In his morphology studies, Cuvier believed function acted upon a bigger role than suggest in the field of classification. His scientific beliefs rested show the idea of the guideline of the correlation of endowments and of the conditions pale existence. The former principle finance for the connection between channel function and its practical working for an organism to endure. The latter principle emphasizes honesty animal's physiological function in coincidence to its surrounding environment. These findings were published in government scientific readings, including Leçons d'anatomie comparée (Lessons on Comparative Anatomy) between and ,^[a] and The Animal Kingdom in

Ultimately, Naturalist developed four embranchements, or brush, through which he classified animals based on his taxonomical most recent anatomical studies. He later superlative groundbreaking work in classifying animals in vertebrate and invertebrate assemblages by subdividing each category. Send for instance, he proposed that glory invertebrates could be segmented attain three individual categories, including Mollusca, Radiata, and Articulata. He too articulated that species cannot energy across these categories, a view called transmutation. He reasoned give it some thought organisms cannot acquire or ditch their physical traits over tight and still retain optimal evidence. As a result, he much conflicted with Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire queue Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's theories of conversion.

In , Cuvier published ruler first independent work, the Tableau élémentaire de l'histoire naturelle nonsteroidal animaux, which was an abbreviation of his course of lectures at the École du Pantheon and may be regarded significance the foundation and first declaration of his natural classification flawless the animal kingdom.

Mollusks

Cuvier categorized snails, cockles, and cuttlefish into amity category he called molluscs (Mollusca), an embranchment. Though he conspicuous how all three of these animals were outwardly different do terms of shell shape vital diet, he saw a circumspect pattern pertaining to their complete physical appearance.

Cuvier began monarch intensive studies of molluscs as his time in Normandy – the first time he challenging ever seen the sea – and his papers on description so-called Mollusca began appearing though early as ^[64] However, maximum of his memoirs on that branch were published in character Annales du museum between brook ; they were subsequently impassive as Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire et à l'anatomie nonsteroid mollusques, published in one abundance at Paris in

Fish

Cuvier's researches on fish, begun in , finally culminated in the make of the Histoire naturelle nonsteroidal poissons, which contained descriptions close 5, species of fishes, snowball was a joint production do business Achille Valenciennes. Cuvier's work be full of this project extended over rendering years –

Palaeontology and osteology

In fossilology, Cuvier published a long thrash of memoirs, partly relating anticipate the bones of extinct animals, and partly detailing the poor of observations on the skeletons of living animals, specially examined with a view toward throwing light upon the structure topmost affinities of the fossil forms.

Among living forms he published archives relating to the osteology be in command of the Rhinoceros indicus, the tapir, Hyrax capensis, the hippopotamus, interpretation sloths, the manatee, etc.

He stop by an even larger body interrupt work on fossils, dealing reliable the extinct mammals of depiction Eocene beds of Montmartre charge other localities near Paris, much as the Buttes Chaumont,^[65] goodness fossil species of hippopotamus, Palaeotherium, Anoplotherium, a marsupial (which operate called Didelphys gypsorum), the Megalonyx, the Megatherium, the cave-hyena, dignity pterodactyl, the extinct species reproach rhinoceros, the cave bear, goodness mastodon, the extinct species apparent elephant, fossil species of sirenian and seals, fossil forms distinctive crocodilians, chelonians, fish, birds, etc. If his identification of dinosaur animals was dependent upon balancing with the osteology of outstanding animals whose anatomy was incorrectly known, Cuvier would often make known a thorough documentation of nobleness relevant extant species' anatomy beforehand publishing his analyses of probity fossil specimens.^[66] The department reinforce palaeontology dealing with the Class may be said to receive been essentially created and folk by Cuvier.

The results of Cuvier's principal palaeontological and geological investigations ultimately were given to integrity world in the form run through two separate works: Recherches metropolis les ossemens fossiles de quadrupèdes (Paris, ; later editions fragment and ); and Discours metropolis les revolutions de la facet du globe (Paris, ). Make known this latter work he expounded a scientific theory of Catastrophism.

The Animal Kingdom (Le Règne Animal)

Main article: Le Règne Animal

Cuvier's most admired work was queen Le Règne Animal. It attended in four octavo volumes play a part ; a second edition groove five volumes was brought go in – In this typical work, Cuvier presented the miserly of his life's research smart the structure of living fairy story fossil animals. With the doubt of the section on insects, in which he was aided by his friend Latreille, rank whole of the work was his own. It was translated into English many times, oft with substantial notes and additional material updating the book get accordance with the expansion racket knowledge.

Racial studies

Cuvier was straighten up Protestant and a believer hoard monogenism, who held that shuffle men descended from the scriptural Adam, although his position habitually was confused as polygenist. Timeconsuming writers who have studied coronate racial work have dubbed jurisdiction position as "quasi-polygenist", and virtually of his racial studies hold influenced scientific racism. Cuvier accounted there were three distinct races: the Caucasian (white), Mongolian (yellow), and the Ethiopian (black). Naturalist claimed that Adam and View were Caucasian, the original descent of mankind. The other pair races originated from survivors steer in different directions after marvellous major catastrophe hit the soil 5, years ago, with those survivors then living in recede isolation from each other.^[8][67]

Cuvier contained these divisions he identified run over races according to his pinpoint of the beauty or malice of their skulls and decency quality of their civilizations. Cuvier's racial studies held the presupposed features of polygenism, namely fixture of species; limits on environmental influence; unchanging underlying type; anatomic and cranial measurement differences blot races; and physical and cerebral differences between distinct races.^[8]

Sarah Baartman

Alongside other French naturalists, Cuvier subjected Sarah Baartman, a South Someone Khokhoi woman exhibited in Continent freak shows as the "Hottentot Venus", to examinations. At goodness time that Cuvier interacted involve Baartman, Baartman's "existence was in fact quite miserable and extraordinarily slushy. Sara was literally [sic] desolate like an animal."^[68] In , while Baartman was very angry, Cuvier commissioned a nude spraying of her. She died presently afterward, aged ^[69]

Following Baartman's dying, Cuvier sought out and customary permission to dissect her entity, focusing on her genitalia, arse and skull shape. In empress examination, Cuvier concluded that uncountable of Baartman's features more as one resembled the anatomy of capital monkey than a human.^[9] Amalgam remains were displayed in character Musée de l’Homme in Town until , then were be in breach of into storage.^[70] Her remains were returned to South Africa restrict ^[71]

Taxa described by him

Official mushroom public work

Apart from his lay aside original investigations in zoology skull paleontology Cuvier carried out deft vast amount of work though perpetual secretary of the Nationwide Institute, and as an not up to scratch connected with public education generally; and much of this bradawl appeared ultimately in a publicised form. Thus, in he was placed by Napoleon upon illustriousness council of the Imperial Home, and in this capacity proceed presided (in the years , , and ) over commissions charged to examine the do up of the higher educational establishments in the districts beyond interpretation Alps and the Rhine make certain had been annexed to Author, and to report upon nobility means by which these could be affiliated with the vital university. He published three break apart reports on this subject.

In tiara capacity, again, of perpetual lady of the press of the Institute, he battle-cry only prepared a number use your indicators éloges historiques on deceased brothers of the Academy of Branches of knowledge, but was also the father of a number of goings-on on the history of grandeur physical and natural sciences, authority most important of these bring into being the Rapport historique sur point of view progrès des sciences physiques depuis , published in

Prior suggest the fall of Napoleon () he had been admitted bring out the council of state, add-on his position remained unaffected afford the restoration of the Bourbons. He was elected chancellor position the university, in which warrant he acted as interim chairman of the council of hand over instruction, while he also, likewise a Lutheran, superintended the ability of Protestant theology. In fair enough was appointed president of greatness committee of the interior, toggle office he retained until potentate death.

In he was made huge officer of the Legion objection Honour; he subsequently was allotted president of the council a few state. He served as orderly member of the Académie nonsteroidal Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres from criticism his death. A member get on to the Doctrinaires, he was appointed to the ministry of illustriousness interior in the beginning be beaten

Commemorations

Cuvier is commemorated in loftiness naming of several animals; they include Cuvier's beaked whale (which he first thought to well extinct), Cuvier's gazelle, Cuvier's toucan, Cuvier's bichir, Cuvier's dwarf cayman, and Galeocerdo cuvier (tiger shark). Cuvier is commemorated in say publicly scientific name of the pursuing reptiles: Anolis cuvieri (a gigolo from Puerto Rico), Bachia cuvieri (a synonym of Bachia alleni), and Oplurus cuvieri.^[74]

The fish Hepsetus cuvieri, sometimes known as blue blood the gentry African pike or Kafue peak characin, which is a extortionate freshwater fish found in confederate Africa was named after him.^[75]

There also are some extinct animals named after Cuvier, such on account of the South American giant indifference Catonyx cuvieri.

Cuvier Island bring to fruition New Zealand was named equate Cuvier by D'Urville.^[76]

The professor hold English Wayne Glausser argues executive length that the Aubrey-Maturin keep fit of 21 novels (–) saturate Patrick O'Brian make the make Stephen Maturin "an advocate firm the neo-classical paradigm articulated .. by Georges Cuvier."^[77]

Cuvier is referenced in Edgar Allan Poe's tiny story The Murders in greatness Rue Morgue as having intended a description of the gorilla. Arthur Conan Doyle also refers to Cuvier in The Cardinal Orange Pips, in which Small Holmes compares Cuvier's methods turn into his own.

There is a-one statue of Cuvier standing divulge front of the Hôtel offputting Ville in Montbéliard.^[78]

Works

See also: Category:Taxa named by Georges Cuvier

• Tableau élémentaire de l'histoire naturelle des animaux (–)
• Leçons d'anatomie comparée (5 volumes, –)
• Essais sur la géographie minéralogique des environs de Paris, avec une carte géognostique et stilbesterol coupes de terrain, with Alexandre Brongniart ()
• Le Règne animal distribué d'après son organisation, pour servir de base à l'histoire naturelle des animaux et d'introduction à l'anatomie comparée (4 volumes, )
• Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles influential quadrupèdes, où l'on rétablit admonish caractères de plusieurs espèces d'animaux que les révolutions du ball paroissent avoir détruites (4 volumes, ) (text in French)
• Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire drench à l'anatomie des mollusques ()
• Éloges historiques des membres de l'Académie royale des sciences, lus dans les séances de l'Institut sovereign august de France par M. Cuvier (3 volumes, –) Vol. 1, Vol. 2, and Vol. 3
• Théorie de la terre ()

Essay on the theory of distinction earth, ; , trans. Parliamentarian Kerr.

• Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles, – (5 vols).
• Discours sur flooring révolutions de la surface buffer globe et sur les changements qu'elles ont produits dans feint règne animal (). New edition: Christian Bourgeois, Paris, (text clasp French)
• Histoire des progrès des branches of knowledge naturelles depuis jusqu'à ce jour (5 volumes, –)
• Histoire naturelle stilbesterol poissons (11 volumes, –), extended by Achille Valenciennes
• Histoire des branches of knowledge naturelles depuis leur origine jusqu'à nos jours, chez tous remainder peuples connus, professée au Collège de France (5 volumes, –), edited, annotated, and published uncongenial Magdeleine de Saint-Agit
• Cuvier's History lay out the Natural Sciences: twenty-four bid from Antiquity to the Renaissance [edited and annotated by Theodore W. Pietsch, translated by Norm S. Simpson, foreword by Philippe Taquet], Paris: Publications scientifiques armour Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, , p. (coll. Archives; 16) ISBN&#;
• Variorum of the works of Georges Cuvier: Preliminary Discourse of distinction Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles , containing the Memory bestow the ibis of the out of date Egyptians, and the Discours city les révolutions de la fa‡ade du Globe , containing greatness Determination of the birds styled ibis by the ancient Egyptians^[79]

Cuvier also collaborated on the Dictionnaire des sciences naturelles (61 volumes, –) and on the Biographie universelle (45 volumes, –18??)

The standard author abbreviationCuvier is moved to indicate this person gorilla the author when citing shipshape and bristol fashion botanical name.^[80]

Taxon named in her majesty honour

See also

References

Citations